Course Content

Factors:

1. What are your lesson goals?
2. What is the so-called scope and sequence of the lessons?
3. What is the availability and quality of resources?
4. What is/are the background/attributes of the learners? (this one in particular comes up over and over again)

1. Goals:

 
What are the intended behaviors, attitudes, social, and/or cognitive outcomes? This is a step higher up in the thinking/instructional process than objectives (see the lesson on design thinking— Objectives are those actions utilized to accomplish the goals.)

 

2. Scope & Sequence:

 
Not all content areas are efficiently taught by the same delivery methods. For example, reviews may be best done through simulations & games, but may not be appropriate for initial introduction of materials. This element in essence contextualizes the lesson.
 

3. Learner Attributes:

 
This is where learning styles come into play. Differing learning styles and/or abilities and skill levels (i.e. reading levels) need to be considered. If, for example, you deliver your course online you need to pay particular attention to the ability of your students to actually be able to read, as online courses are highly text-based.

You also need to take into consideration the motivation of your learners. For example, non-motivated learners do not respond well to independent study formats.

4. Availability and quality of resources:

 
This includes, time, materials, money, and size of room where instruction is delivered. Other considerations:

• Schedules
• Costs/budgets
• Size of the group
• Available technology (is distance learning a possibility?)

The most precious resource to consider is time…. (how much is available for both the lesson and the planning?) Less is more… (KISS method).

 

Overriding determinations in successful implementation:

 
In the final analysis, these elements will determine how well implemented the selected method will turn out:

• Teachers/Instructors must be able to comprehend the instructional system that they are trying to implement (know it well and why it works).
• They should be able to visualize the instructional system (be able to clearly define teacher and student roles and responsibilities).
• They also need to be capable of adopting/adapting the system (for example devising an evaluation instrument that properly reflects the goals of the curriculum)(i.e., making adjustments to suit the needs of the class and be conversant in its implementation).

Categories of Delivery Systems (3)

 
The following is a list of the different identifiable delivery methodologies cataloged into three categories:

1. Independent Study (many of you might overlook this as an actual delivery method as there is little or no outside influence and focuses on individual). In a systematic overview, though, all forms of course designs must be considered, as they have a place…
2. Small Group Interaction (peer group interaction.. beneficial as it is looked upon by many students as being more secure and individualized)
3. Large Group Presentations (learner receives outside influence from someone in authority outside of the group.. see also wisdom of crowds).

 

Independent Study (i.e., little or no outside interaction is needed)

 

• Self-paced modules
• Textbooks/workbooks
• <>Computer-based Instruction
• Audio Packages
• Multimedia
• Contract Learning
• Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

 

Small Group Interaction (i.e., learners are influenced/supported by peers in the groups)

 

• Discussions
• Panel Discussions
• Group Investigation
• Case Studies
• Role Play
• Simulations
• Games
• Cooperative Learning

 

Large Group Presentations (i.e., focuses on economies of scale and efficiencies)

 

• Lectures
• Multimedia
• Distance Learning

For example, independent formats are more applicable to instructional units that are small and linear in nature, self-paced, and highly sequential. They require learners who do not require other, outside influences to stay on task, and are highly structured so that they require specifically designed resources. They do not accommodate well those students who need supplemental experiences to synthesize the materials.
On the other hand, small group instruction strategies are good for solving problems, inquiry learning, evoke social interactions and higher-order thinking, as opposed to the rote learning of facts or tasks. The learners who are attracted to small groups like (and need) interaction with their peers, are good listeners, and enjoy sharing.

The large group instruction is a good strategy for the efficient distribution of information, and large group sharing. On the other hand, presentations are effectively passive learning where the teacher (or other authority figure) who imparts information.
Which one is utilized also depends largely on the psyche and educational experiences of the teacher. They are offered to help make some decisions as to how the lessons are to be implemented.

This table is a work in progress. We are developing short descriptions for each delivery method and linking to the table below. For a summary description or example, click on the entry link:

 

Independent Study Formats	Small Group Interaction	Large Group Presentation
Textbook/Workbooks	Discussions	Lectures
Audio Packages	Panel Discussions	Multimedia Presentations
Computer-Based Instruction	Group Investigation	Distance/elearning
Contract Learning	Case Studies
Personalized System of Instruction	Role Playing
Self-Paced Modules	Simulations & Games
	Cooperative Learning

Case Studies

Case studies are a problem-solving technique that provides students the opportunity an individual occurrence of otherwise real events. If properly constructed, students should be able to make inferences from the results of the study to the larger population as a whole. Case studies are often a technique used in conjunction with discussion groups. Results are analyzed, discussed, and used to propose recommendations. To be effective, they require some type of story that is realistic and is set up in a way in which students can easily make choices and/or consider alternatives.

When they are most effective

This is an effective instructional method that works well when:

• the teacher utilizes realistic stories.
• the study contains a series of alternatives to consider
• the study accurately reflects the problem that needs to be solved.
• the study leaves loose ends for open-ended discussion.

Disadvantages

Case studies require considerable lead-time. They must be constructed in a way in which the students are motivated to find solutions. They are not effective in situations in which students are not motivated on their own. Considerable planning with regards to cooperative learning is also a concern.

Case studies could be used effectively in some of the affective lessons that attempt to elicit an opinion or a conclusion.

Digging Deeper

Those wishing more information on how to plan case studies and make them more effective may want to consult the following resource:

Silverman, R. Welty, W.M. and Lyon, S. Case studies for teacher problem solving. McGraw Hill. New York, NY. 1992.

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Simulations and Games

Games

Games are activities that operate and are governed by a given set of rules and imply contestants competing against others or an artificial standard imposed by a piece of technical equipment such as a computer. They are not necessarily digitized. Games usually imply that there are usually winners and losers.They can be commercial games, games that have been adapted by the teacher, and/or teacher-designed. It is important that commercial games are reviewed thoroughly prior to use in the classroom and evaluated for their academic value. Teachers need also to evaluate the value of the game in reference to how long s/he wants to spend on them in the classroom.

Games have rules, winners and losers, and can be good motivators. Simulations may or may not have a competitive aspect and usually involve predetermined artificial standards.

Simulations

The terms game and simulation are often used interchangeably. However, they are not exactly the same thing. Games may make take on certain attributes of simulations (or vice-versa) when they replicate real-life situations (or an abstract of reality). Simulations can be used to develop high level skills, and are more commonly used in social studies classes. There do not have to be (and usually aren’t) winners and losers in simulations. An attribute of a presentation (a disadvantage, for sure) is that they are inflexible in that one cannot easily accommodate variations to the prescribed linear format. A simulation easily accommodates variations. As a matter of fact, being variable is built into the very foundation of simulations. A simulation wouldn’t be a simulation if it was linear in nature.

The two questions that need to be asked, regardless if the product is a game or simulation:

• Does it teach something?
• What does it teach?

When they are most effective

Most often, games are a tool used for review of learning concepts already taught. However, they can be a useful tool to teach new concepts in limited circumstances. Simulations involve an internalization of previously-learned concepts in an attempt to move the thinking to a higher level or to cause students to synthesize information.

Instructional games are supposed to teach something. Learning takes place. Success is based on the fact that what is supposed to be learned, is. Nothing is left to chance. Performance implies that learning is taking place.

According to Schurr, Thomasom, and Thompson, an effective use of games in the classroom implies there are several steps taken by the teacher prior to playing any game in the classroom:

• the teachers orients the participants to the rules of the game.
• the teacher instructs the principles or learning concepts prior to playing.
• the teacher provides an opportunity for participants to “trial run” the game.
• the teacher conducts a debriefing in which the concepts are again reviewed.

In addition, the teacher needs to define the overall objectives and scope prior to beginning.Both games and simulations are most effective when outcomes are clearly specified in advance.

Disadvantages

Some games are just that… diversions. As such, very often they carry little educational value. It is considerably more difficult to construct or implement a game that ensures that kids aren’t the losers. The key factor in the success of a game or simulation is that the student already has attained the basic skills. The learning aspect of games tend to fall away when the ultimate goal orientation isn’t clearly defined. It is also not recommended to use games as rewards.

Games may be most effective to teach or review cognitive knowledge. One might devise a Jeopardy-style game to review the important names and events in the history lessons, or the concepts being taught in the chapters dealing with those concepts other than operating the equipment. Any knowledge being taught for the quizzes or exams would qualify. Simulations, however, are more like case studies in nature. They might be best reserved to accomplish those lessons with affective objectives, and where opinions need to be developed. There is a simulation in the course in Chapter 2. The Decisions/Decisions: Violence in the Media activity is essentially a simulation.

Those wishing more information on how to plan games and simulations to make more effective use of them in the classroom may want to consult the following resources:

Freiberg, H.J. and Driscoll, A. Universal teaching strategies. Allyn & Bacon. Needham, Ma. 1992.,

Heitzman, W. R. Educational games and simulations. ed.National Educational Association. Washington, D. C. 1987.

Schurr, S.L., Thomason, J., and Thompson, M. Teaching at the middle: A professional’s handbook. D.C. Heath and Company.Lexington, MA. 1995.

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Personal System of Instruction (PSI)

Personal System of Instruction (PSI) involves some type of presentation of material, but fully implements the presentation – performance – confirmation aspects of learning. It is actually an effective implementation of other strategies (such as the lecture) that adds the ingredient of student participation and feedback to an otherwise passive student learning situation. The key factor to the success of PSI is that mastery, not the clock or calendar determines progression on to the next topic. Successful implementation implies that:

• the presentation of information is relevant and appropriate to the student’s current knowledge and skill-level is student-centered and
• there are frequent opportunities to test comprehension of information and
• confirmation is immediate.

In a PSI setting a student must master each step before moving on to the next. What is new about this strategy is how the student comes into contact with the learning content.

When PSI is most effective

PSI’s are often accompanied by study guides that supplement relevant portions of the text. Quizzes and/or mastery tests should occur often, and mastery is required for progression. Goals must be clearly stated, and a proctor is available to work with students and to help the teacher with providing feedback on performance.

Hints to success:

• chose texts/media carefully
• build confidence early
• create manageable units
• build in review-types of assignments
• keep mastery tests consistent with objectives
• encourage feedback from students so adjustments may be made

Disadvantages

PSI tends to require considerable record-keeping that may not be possible if a proctor is not available. Several versions of tests and quizzes need to be constructed so that re-tests are effective. Be prepared to spend considerable time planning the lesson units. Because the lessons are linear, the educational process often fails to see things holistically.
Students tend to forget previous lesson materials. Review sessions should be built into the schedule. Reading skills are a key element of the learning process. Students of different learning styles may not do well in this environment.

Local governing boards need to be firm in their statement of learning goals and philosophies and decisions regarding mastery as a prerequisite for progression. Because mastery tests are a crucial element in evaluation, PSI is not to be used for student selection where separation of scores is crucial.

Digging Deeper

Those wishing more information on how to make more effective use of PSI in the classroom may want to consult the following resources:

Keller, F. S. and Sherman, J. G. (1982). The PSI handbook: Essays on personalized instruction. Lawrence, KS: TRI Publications.

Kulick, J.A.,Kulick, C.C., & Cohen, P.A. (1979) A meta-analysis of outcome studies of Keller’s personalized system of instruction. American Psychologist, vol. 34, p.307-318.

Sherman, J. G. and Ruskin, R. (1978) The personalized system of instruction.Englewood Cliff, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

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Role Playing

Role playing is an interactive instructional strategy that most often involves physical responses by students. The method encourages students to improvise, thereby nurturing emotions, feelings, and/or critical thinking. It is an excellent technique, especially for middle school students in that it forms a bridge or transition between concrete and abstract thinking. Role plays are generally short in length. Role plays most often are used in the affective domain to help clarify attitudes, demonstrate a deepened understanding of learning concepts, and/or promote leadership. Because more than one sense is involved, role plays are very effective in approaching Intelligences on multiple levels.

When Role Playing is most effective

They are more effective when they are spontaneous, and the teacher is present to intercede. The format should be well-defined, but the actual script is open-ended. Role plays depend on student’s actions and interpretations. Because the student is an active participant, s/he is more likely to be affected more intensely by the activity. Role plays are similar to case studies and simulations because they also involve student participation and often involve real-life situations,but role plays are less structured and allow students opportunities to develop critical thinking skills. games and simulations are aimed at skill development, where role plays are oriented towards affective reactions.

To be most effective, role plays should always be followed by debriefing sessions so that students are able to internalize their impressions and thinking. Even though the script may be open-ended, the setting needs to be highly structured with the goals and outcomes clearly defined beforehand.

Disadvantages

Role plays can be time-consuming for both the teacher and student. Like games, they can be viewed as frivolous and, unless closely monitored can lead students to make and promote wrong decisions.

Digging Deeper

Those wishing more information on how to make more effective use of role playing in their classroom may want to consult the following resources:

Campbell, L. Campbell, B. and Dickinson, D. Teaching and learning through multiple intelligences. Allyn & Bacon. Needham Heights, MA. 1994.

Engel, H. M. Handbook of creative learning exercises. 2nd edition. HRD Press. Amherst,MA. 1990.

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